The effects of online learning self-efficacy and attitude toward online learning in predicting academic performance: The case of online prospective mathematics teachers

Suphi Önder Bütüner; Serdal  Baltacı

doi:10.18543/tjhe.2214

Suphi Önder Bütüner Yozgat Bozok University, Turkey
Serdal Baltacı Kırşehir Ahi Evran University, Turkey

Keywords: online learning, self-efficacy, attitude, academic performance, online prospective mathematics teachers

Abstract

This study aims to discover if Online Learning Self-Efficacy (OLSE) and attitude toward online learning (AOL) significantly predict the academic performance (AP) among Turkish prospective mathematics teachers. Unlike the studies conducted in the literature, online learning self-efficacy and attitude towards online learning as predictor variables were included in the study and both quantitative and qualitative data were collected. The study included 1075 prospective mathematics teachers’ responses in the analysis. The Pearson correlation was employed to determine how strongly OLSE, AOL, and AP are related. Results indicated that OLSE and AOL influenced the level of AP. Also, the multiple regression aimed to predict AP based on OLSE and AOL, and this model explained 44.6% of the variance in AP. The beta weights demonstrated that OLSE and AOL (OLSE β = .36, t(1072) = 9.705, p < .001, and AOL β = .34, t(1072) = 9.176, p < .001) significantly contributed to the model. The results showed that the level of academic performance can be predicted by online learning self-efficacy and attitude toward online learning. In addition, this study revealed the factors that have favorable and adverse effects on the academic performance of prospective mathematics teachers to gain more extensive information. Under the theme of negative factors, there were 7 codes. The results obtained from the study can be a guide for practitioners, policy makers and teachers to take the necessary precautions for the effective execution of the distance education process.

Received: 4 October 2021
Accepted: 27 June 2023

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biographies

Suphi Önder Bütüner, Yozgat Bozok University, Turkey

Associate Professor of Math Education at Faculty of Education, Yozgat Bozok University (Turkey) where he teaches undergraduate and post-graduate courses. He worked as a mathematics teacher between 2002 and 2014. He received master’s degree in 2006 and doctorate degree in 2014. He has been working at the Faculty of Education at Yozgat Bozok University since 2015. His research focus is on teaching mathematical concepts and teacher training.

Serdal Baltacı, Kırşehir Ahi Evran University, Turkey

Associate Professor of Math Education at Faculty of Education, Kırşehir Ahi Evran University (Turkey) where he teaches undergraduate and post-graduate courses. He received doctorate degree in 2014. He has been working at the Faculty of Education at Kırşehir Ahi Evran University since 2007. His research focus is on teaching mathematical concepts and teacher training.

References

Arens, A. Katrin, Anne C. Frenzel, and Thomas Goetz. “Self-Concept and Self-Efficacy in Math: Longitudinal Interrelations and Reciprocal Linkages with Achievement.” The Journal of Experimental Education 90, no. 3 (2020): 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2020.1786347.

Awofala, A. O. Adeneye. “Correlates of Senior Secondary School Students’ Mathematics Achievement.” Educatia 21, no. 17 (2019): 15-25. https://doi.org/10.24193/ed21.2019.17.02.

Baker, Jason D. “An Investigation of Relationships Among Instructor Immediacy and Affective and Cognitive learning in the Online Classroom.” The Internet and Higher Education 7, no. 1 (2004): 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2003.11.006.

Bandura, Albert. “Organizational Application of Social Cognitive Theory.” Australian Journal of Management 13, no. 2 (1988): 275–302. https://doi.org/10.1177/031289628801300210.

Bandura, Albert. Self-efficacy Encyclopedia of Human Behaviour. New York: Academic Press, 1994.

Bandura, Albert. “Social Cognitive Theory: An Agentic Perspective.” Asian Journal of Social Psychology 2, no. 1 (1999): 21-41. http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1.

Bawa, Papia. “Retention in Online Courses: Exploring Issues and Solutions–A Literature Review.” Sage Open 6, no. 1 (2016): 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015621777.

Beaudoin, Michael. “The Instructor’s Changing Role in Distance Education.” The American Journal of Distance Education 4, no. 2 (1990): https://doi.org/10.1080/08923649009526701.

Bolliger, Doris U, and Oksana, Wasilik. “Factors Influencing Faculty Satisfaction With Online Teaching and Learning in Higher Education.” Distance Education 30, no. 1 (2009): 103-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587910902845949.

Brinkley-Etzkorn Karen. E. “The Effects of Training on Instructor Beliefs About and Attitudes Toward Online Teaching.” American Journal of Distance Education 34, no. 1 (2019): 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2020.1692553.

Byrne, Barbara M. Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming. New York: Taylor Francis, 2010.

Ceres, Pia. “A Covid Slide’ Could Widen the Digital Divide for Students.” Accessed 4 May 2021. https://www.wired.com/story/schools-digital-divide-remote-learning/

Chao, Tracy, Tami Saj, and Felicity Tessier. “Establishing a Quality Review for Online Courses.” Educause Quarterly 3, (2006): 32-39.

Chan, Sophia S-C, Winnie K-W So, David C-N Wong, Angel C-K Lee, and Agnes Tiwari. “Improving Older Adults’ Knowledge and Practice of Preventive Measures Through a Telephone Health Education During the SARS Epidemic in Hong Kong: a Pilot Study.” International Journal of Nursing Studies 244, no. 7 (2007): 1120-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2006.04.019.

Chen, Kuan-Chung, and Syh-Jong Jang. “Motivation in Online Learning: Testing a Model of Self-Determination Theory.” Computer in Human Behavior 26, no. 4 (2010): 741-752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.01.011.

Council of Higher Education. “Correspondence of Grades in the 4-Point System in the 100-Point System.” Accessed 26 April 2021. https://www.yok.gov.tr/Documents/Kurumsal/personel_dairesi/4_luk_sistem_100.pdf.

Council of Higher Education. “COVID-19 Information Note: 1.” Accessed 5 April 2020. https://www.yok.gov.tr/Sayfalar/Haberler/2020/

Dabbagh, Nada, and Brenda Bannan-Ritland. Online learning: Concepts, Strategies, and Application. Prentice Hall, 2005.

De Paepe, Liesbeth, Chang Zhu, and Koen DePryck. “Drop-out, Retention, Satisfaction and Attainment of Online Learners of Dutch in Adult Education.” International Journal on E-Learning 17, no. 3 (2018): 303-23.

Deci, Edward L, and Richard M. Ryan, “Facilitating Optimal Motivation and Psychological Wellbeing Across Life’s Domains.” Canadian Psychology 49, no. 1 (2008): 14-23. https://doi.org/10.1037/0708-5591.49.1.14.

Drennan, Judy, Jessica Kennedy, and Anne Pisarski. “Factors Affecting Student Attitudes Toward Flexible Online Learning in Management Education.” Journal of Educational Research 98, no. 6 (2005): 331-38. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.98.6.331-338.

Driscoll, Margaret. Web-based training: Creating E-learning Experiences. San Francisco: JosseyBass/Pfeiffer, 2002.

Ertmer A. Peggy, Anne T. Ottenbreit-Leftwich, Olgun Sadik, Emine Sendurur, Polat Sendurur. “Teacher Beliefs and Technology Integration Practices: A Critical Relationship.” Computers and Education 59, no. 2 (2012): 423-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.02.001.

Evans, Brian R. “Student Attitudes, Conceptions and Achievement in Introductory Undergraduate College Statistics.” The Mathematics Educator 17, no. 2 (2007): 22-24.

Falowo, O. Rasheed. “Factors Impeding Implementation of Web-based Distance Learning.” AACE Journal 15, no. 3 (2007): 315-38.

Feldman, B. David, and Maximilian Kubota. “Hope, Self-efficacy, Optimism, and Academic Achievement: Distinguishing Constructs and Levels of Specificity in Predicting College Grade-point Average.” Learning and Individual Differences 37, (2015): 210-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.11.022.

Ferri, Fernando, Patrizia Grifoni, and Tiziana Guzzo. “Online Learning and Emergency Remote Teaching: Opportunities and Challenges in Emergency Situations.” Societies 10, no. 4 (2020): 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc10040086.

Fidalgo, Patricia, Joan Thormann, Oleksandr Kulyk, and José Alberto Lencastre. “Students’ Perceptions on Distance Education: A Multinational Study.” International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education 17, (2020): 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00194-2.

Fidan, Mustafa. “Distance Education Students’ Attitudes Towards Distance Education and Their Epistemological Beliefs.” Hacettepe University Journal of Education 31, no. 3 (2016): 536-50. https://doi.org/10.16986/HUJE.2016016666.

Field, Andy. Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics. London: Sage, 2013.

Gallagher, W. Matthew. “Self-Efficacy.” In Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, edited by. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, 314-20. San Diego: Academic Press, 2012.

Gewin, Virginia. “Five Tips for Moving Teaching Online as COVID-19 Takes Hold.” Nature 580, (2020): 295-96. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-00896-7.

Gong, Rachel. “Coping with MCO: Distance learning and the digital divide.” Accessed October 15, 2020. https://www.malaymail.com/news/what-you-think/2020/03/27/coping-with-mcodistance-learning-and-the-digital-divide-rachel-gong/1850758.

Gürbüz, Sait, and Faruk Şahin. Research Methods in Social Sciences Philosophy, Method, Analysis. Ankara: Seçkin Publication, 2016.

Gürbüz, Sait, and Faruk Şahin. Research Methods in Social Sciences. Ankara: Seçkin Publication, 2018.

Haber, Jennifer, and Michael Mills. “Perceptions of Barriers Concerning Effective Online Teaching and Policies: Florida Community College Faculty.” Community College Journal of Research and Practice 32, no.4-6 (2008): 266-83. https://doi.org/10.1080/10668920701884505.

Hawkins, Brian, and Diana G. Oblinge. “The Myth About the Digital Divide.” Educause Review 41, no. 4 (2006): 12–13.

Helbig, Natalie, Ramón Gil-García, and Erico Ferro. “Understanding the Complexity of Electronic Government: Implications From the Digital Divide Literature.” Government Information Quarterly 26, no. 1 (2009): 89–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2008.05.004.

Henderson, J. Allan. The E-learning Question and Answer Book: A Survival Guide for Trainers and Business Managers. New York: Amacom Press, 2003.

Honicke, Toni, and Jaclyn Broadbent. “The Influence of Academic Self-efficacy on Academic Performance: A Systematic Review.” Educational Research Review 17, (2016): 63-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002.

Horspool, Agi, and Carsten Lange. “Applying the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning: Student Perceptions, Behaviours and Success Online and Face-to-Face.” Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 37, no 1 (2012): 73-88. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2010.496532.

Huff, T. Marie. “A Comparison Study of Live Instruction Versus Interactive Television for Teaching MSW Students Critical Thinking Skills.” Research on Social Work Practice 10, no. 4 (2000): 400-16. doi: 10.1177/104973150001000402.

Hughes, E. Joen, Scott McLeod, Rachel Brown, Yukiko Maeda, and Choi Jiyoung. “Academic Achievement and Perceptions of the Learning Environment in Virtual and Traditional Secondary Mathematics Classrooms.” The American Journal of Distance Education 4, no. 21 (2007): 199-214. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923640701595365.

Hung, Min-Ling. “Teacher Readiness for Online Learning: Scale Development and Teacher Perceptions.” Computers & Education 94, (2016): 120-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.012.

Hrastinski, Stefan. “The Potential of Synchronous Communication to Enhance Participation in Online Discussions: A Case Study of Two E-learning Courses.” Information & Management 45, (2008): 499–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2008.07.005.

Hwang, Gwo-Jen, Po-Han Wu, Chi-Chang Chen. “An Online Game Approach for Improving Students’ Learning Performance in Web-based Problem-Solving Activities.” Computers & Education 59, no. 4 (2012): 1246-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.05.009.

Irani, Tracy, Ricky Telg, Christi Scherler, and Michael Harrington. “Personality Type and Its Relationship to Distance Education Students’ Course Perceptions and Performance.” Quarterly Review of Distance Education 4, no. 4 (2003): 445-53.

Iyer, Parvati, Kalid Aziz, and David M. Ojcius. “Impact of COVID-19 on Dental Education in the United States.” Journal of Dental Education 84, no. 6 (2020): 718-22. https://doi.org/10.1002/jdd.12163.

Jinks, L. Jerry, and Morgan L. Vicky. “Students’ sense of academic efficacy and achievement in science: A useful new direction for research regarding scientific literacy?.” The Electronic Journal of Science Education 1, no. 2 (1996): Accessed May 1, 2020. http://unr.edulhomepage/jcannon/jinksmor.htm.

Journal of Physics: Conference Series, “Mathematics self-efficacy and mathematics performance in online learning.” accessed May 1, 2021. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/1882/1/012050

Kışla, Tarık. “University students’ attitudes towards distance education.” Master diss., Ege University, 2005.

Kışla, Tarık. “Development of an Attitude Scale towards Distance Learning.” Ege Journal of Education 17, no. 1 (2016): 258-271. https://doi.org/10.12984/eed.01675.

Khateeb, A. Linda, Sameer Aowad Kassab Shdaifat, Nidal A. K. Shdaifa. “Effectiveness of communication techniques in distance education and its impact on learning outcomes at Jordanian Universities (Northern Province).” International Journal of Higher Education 10, no. 2 (2021): 74-82. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v10n2p74.

Kline, Rex B. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, New York: Guilford Publications, 2005.

Komarraju, Meera, and Dustin Nadler. “Self-Efficacy and Academic Achievement: Why Do Implicit Beliefs, Goals, and Effort Regulation Matter?.” Learning and Individual Differences 25, (2013): 67-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.01.005.

Koustriava Eleni, and Konstantinos Papadopoulos. “Attitudes of Individuals with Visual Impairments Towards Distance Education.” Universal Access in the Information Society 13, (2014): 439–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-013-0331-2.

Kpolovie, J. Peter, Andy Igho Joe, and Tracy Okoto. “Academic Achievement Prediction: Role of Interest in Learning and Attitude Towards School.” International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education 1, no. 11 (2014): 73-100.

Kurnaz, Ersin, and Murat Serçemeli. “A Research on Academicans’ Perspectives on Distance Education and Distance Accounting Education in the COVID-19 Pandemia Period.” International Journal of Social Sciences Academy 2, no 3 (2020): 262-88.

Li, Dan. “A Review of Self-efficacy of Learners Through Online Learning.” Journal of Humanities and Education Development 2, no. 6 (2020): 526-33.

Liaw, Shu-Sheng., Hsiu-Mei Huang, and Gwo-Dong Chen. “Surveying Instructor and Learner Attitudes Toward E-learning.” Computers & Education 49, (2007): 1066–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2006.01.001.

Lijie, Zhang, Mo Zongzhao, Zhou Ying. “The Influence of Mathematics Attitude on Academic Achievement: Intermediary Role of Mathematics Learning Engagement.” Jurnal Cendekia: Jurnal Pendidikan Matematika 4, no. 2 (2020): 460-67. https://doi.org/10.31004/cendekia.v4i2.253.

Lin, Tzung-Jin. “Exploring the Differences in Taiwanese University Students’ Online Learning Task Value, Goal Orientation, and Self-Efficacy Before and After the COVID-19 Outbreak.” Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 30, no. 3 (2021): 191–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-021-00553-1.

Martínez, Romero J. Sonia, Xavier G. Ordóñez Camacho, Francisco D. Guillén- Gamez, and Javier Bravo Agapito. “Attitudes Toward Technology Among Distance Education Students: Validation of an Explanatory Model.” Online Learning, 24, no. 2 (2020): 59-75.

Merisotis, P. Jamie, and Ronald A. Phipps. “What’s the Difference?: Outcomes of Distance vs. Traditional Classroom-Based Learning.” Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning 31, no. 3 (1999): 12-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/00091389909602685.

Mishra, Sanjaya, and Santosh Panda. “Development and Factor Analysis of an Instrument to Measure Faculty Attitude Towards E-learning.” Asian Journal of Distance Education 5, no. 1 (2007): 27-33.

Mohamed, Lawsha, and Hussain Waheed. “Secondary Students’ Attitude Towards Mathematics in a Selected School of Maldives.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 1, no. 15 (2011): 277-78.

Moore, G. Michael, and William G. Anderson. Handbook of Distance Education. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003.

Muthén, K. Linda, and Bengt O. Muthén. “How to Use a Monte Carlo Study to Decide on Sample Size and Determine Power.” Structural Equation Modeling 9, no. 4 (2002): 599–620. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM09048.

Netemeyer, G. Richard, William O. Bearden, and Subhash Sharma. “Scaling Procedures

Issues and Applications.” USA: Sage Publications, 2013.

Newby, J. Timothy, Donald Stepich, James Lehman, James D. Russell, Anne Todd Leftwich. Educational Technology for Teaching and Learning, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall, 2006.

Obiakor, Thelma, and Adeniran Adedeji P. “COVID-19: Impending Situation Threatens to Deepen Nigeria’s Education Crisis.” Accessed 1 May 2020. https://www.africaportal.org/publications/covid-19-impending-situation-threatens-deepen-nigerias-education-crisis/.

Offir, Baruch, Ingrid Barth, Yoseph Lev, and Arkady Shteinbok. “Teacher–Student Interactions and Learning Outcomes in a Distance Learning Environment.” The Internet and Higher Education 6, no. 1 (2003): 65-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1096-7516(02)00162-8.

Ogunniyi, Solomon O. “Resource Utilisation, Teaching Methods, Time Allocation and Attitude as Correlates of Undergraduates’ Academic Achievement in Cataloguing in Library Schools in Southern Nigeria.” PhD diss., University of Ibadan, 2015.

Ojo, O. David, and Felix Kayode Olakulehin. “Attitudes and Perceptions of Students to Open and Distance Learning in Nigeria.” International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 7, no. 1 (2006): 1-10. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v7i1.313.

Owo, J. Wisdom, and Emmanuel F. Ikwut. “Relationship Between Metacognition, Attitude and Academic Achievement of Secondary School Chemistry Students in Port Harcourt, Rivers State.” IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education 5, no. 6 (2015): 6-12. https://doi.org/10.9790/7388-05630612.

Pallant, Julie. The SPSS Survival Manual. London: McGraw-Hill Education, 2013.

Pajares, Frank. “Self-efficacy Beliefs and Mathematical Problem-Solving of Gifted Students.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 21, no. 4 (1996): 325-44. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1996.0025.

Pekrun, Reinhard, Nathan C. Hall, Thomas Goetz, and Raymond P. Perry. “Boredom and Academic Achievement: Testing a Model of Reciprocal Causation.” Journal of Educational Psychology 106, no. 3 (2014): 696-710. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036006.

Petty, E. Richard, and John T. Cacioppo. Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary Approaches. New York: Westview Press, 1996.

Petracchi, Helen E. “Distance Education: What do our Students Tell us?” Research on Social Work Practice, 10, no. 3 (2000): 362-76. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731500010003.

Puzziferro, Maria. “Online Technologies Self-efficacy, Self-regulated Learning, and Experimental Variables as Predictors of Final Grade and Satisfaction in College- Level Online Courses.” American Journal of Distance Education 22, no 2 (2006): 72-89. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923640802039024.

Randhawa, S. Bikkar, James E. Beamer, and Ingvar Lundberg. “Role of Mathematics Self-efficacy in the Structural Model of Mathematics Achievement.” Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, no. 1 (1993): 41. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.85.1.41.

Rizun, Mariia, and Artur Strzelecki. “Students’ Acceptance of the COVID-19 Impact on Shifting Higher Education to Distance Learning in Poland.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no 18 (2020): 1-19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186468.

Martínez, Romero J. Sonia, Xavier G. Ordóñez Camacho, Francisco D. Guillén- Gamez, Javier Bravo Agapito. “Attitudes Toward Technology Among Distance Education Students: Validation of an Explanatory Model.” Online Learning 24, no. 2 (2020): 59-75. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v24i2.2028.

Rosen, Anita. E-Learning 2.0: Proven Practices and Emerging Technologies to Achieve Real Results. New York: Amacom, 2009.

Sanders, W. Diana, and Alison I. Morrison-Shetlar, “Student Attitudes Toward Web- Enhanced Instruction in an Introductory Biology Course.” Journal of Research on Computing in Education 33, no. 3 (2001): 251–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/08886504.2001.10782313.

Schunk, H. Dale. “Self-efficacy and education and instruction.” In Self-Efficacy, Adaptation, and Adjustment: Theory, Research, and Application, edited by James E. Maddux, 281-303. Plenum Press, 1995.

Schunk, H. Dale. Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective. Boston: Pearson, 2009

Sharma, P. Yash. “Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) for School Education in India: Advantages, Challenges and Suggestions for Implementation.” Microcosmos International Journal of Research 1, no. 2 (2015): 1–5.

Sharp, Caroline, Pocklington Keith, and Weindling Dick. “Study Support and the Development of Self-regulated Learner. Educational Research 44, no. 1 (2002): 29- 42.

Shen, Demei, Moon-Heum Cho, Chia-Lin Tsai, and Rose Marra. “Unpacking Online Learning Experiences: Online Learning Self-efficacy and Learning Satisfaction.” The Internet and Higher Education 19, (2013): 10-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2013.04.001.

Sinha, Neelu, Laila Khreisat, and Kiron Sharma. “Learner-Interface Interaction for Technology-Enhanced Active Learning.” Innovate: Journal of Online Education 5, no. 3 (2009): 1-9.

Stevens, Junko. Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences. New York: Routledge Taylor Francis Group, 1996.

Sun, Yan, and Reenay Rogers. “Development and Validation of the Online Learning Self-efficacy Scale (OLSS): A Structural Equation Modeling Approach.” American Journal of Distance Education 35, no.3 (2021): 184-99. http://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2020.1831357.

Tabachnick, G. Barbara, and Linda S. Fidell. Using Multivariate Statistics. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2013.

Tsai, Chia-Lin, Moon-Heum Cho, Rose Marra, and Demei Shen. “The Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Online Learning.” Distance Education 41, no. 4 (2020): 472- 89. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2020.1821604.

Tsuei, Mengping. “Using Synchronous Peer Tutoring System to Promote Elementary Students’ Learning in Mathematics.” Computers & Education 58, no. 4 (2012): 1171-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.11.025.

UNESCO. “Exams and assessments in COVID-19 crisis: fairness at the centre.” Accessed 10 May 2021. https://en.unesco.org/news/exams-and-assessments-covid-19-crisis-fairness-centre.

Unger, Shem, and William Meiran. “Student Attitudes Towards Online Education During the COVID-19 Viral Outbreak of 2020: Distance Learning in a Time of Social Distance.” International Journal of Technology in Education and Science 4, no 4 2020: 256-66. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijtes.v4i4.107.

Wang, Ya-Ling, Jyh-Chong Liang, and Chin-Chung Tsai. “Cross-Cultural Comparisons of University Students’ Science Learning Self-efficacy: Structural Relationships Among Factors within Science Learning Self-efficacy.” International Journal of Science Education 40, no. 6 (2018): 579-94. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2017.1315780.

Watts, Lynette. “Synchronous and Asynchronous Communication in Distance Learning: A Review of the Literature.” Quarterly Review of Distance Education 17, no 1 (2016): 23-32.

Wheeler, Stewe. “Student Perceptions of Learning Support in Distance Education.” Quarterly Review of Distance Education 3, no. 4 (2002): 419-29.

Woodcock, Stuart, Ashley Sisco, and Michelle J Eady. “The Learning Experience: Training Teachers Using Online Synchronous Environments.” Journal of Educational Research and Practice 5, no. 1 (2015): 21-34. https://doi.org/10.5590/JERAP.2015.05.1.02.

Wigfield, Allen, Jacquelynne S Eccles, Jennifer A. Fredricks, Sandra Simpkins, Robert W. Roeser, and Ulrich Schiefele. “Development of achievement motivation and engagement.” In Handbook of child psychology and developmental science, edited by. M. E. Lamb, R. M. Lerner, M. E. Lamb, & R. M. Lerner, 657-700. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2015.

World Health Organization, “Advice for the public: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19),” accessed July 3, 2021, https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019.

Zimmerman, J. Barry. “Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner: An Overview.” Theory Into Practice, 41, no. 2 (2002): 64-70. doi: 10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2.

Zhang, Dongsong, and Jay F. Nunamaker. “Powering E-learning in the New Millennium: An Overview of E-learning and Enabling Technology.” Information Systems Frontiers 5, no. 2 (2003): 207-18. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022609809036.

Zuffianò, Antonio., Guido Alessandri, Maria Gerbino, Bernadette P. L. Kanacri, Laura Di Giunta, Michela Milioni, and Gian V. Caprara. “Academic Achievement: The Unique Contribution of Self-efficacy Beliefs in Self-regulated Learning Beyond Intelligence, Personality Traits, and Self-esteem.” Learning and Individual Differences, 23, (2013): 158-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.07.010.