Harmonisation of higher education in Africa: 20 years after the Bologna Process
Abstract
It has been 20 years since the Bologna Process has been realized, and the present paper examines efforts made to harmonise higher education in Africa. Similar to other continents, the higher education reform in Africa is inspired by the Bologna Process. This is clearly reflected in the African Union strategy for harmonisation of higher education and different reforms and harmonisation initiatives. The reforms in African higher education are directly and indirectly influenced by the European Union which is also the main financer and technical partner in the development and implementation of higher education harmonisation in Africa. There are different factors that affect the institutionalisation and sustainability of harmonisation initiatives in Africa. Some of the major factors include lack of strong and genuine cooperation among African HEIs, lack of nations’ political commitment to higher reforms, and lack of contextualisation in adopting reforms and strategies. Although the effort to harmonise African higher education is commendable, it is important to look for innovative strategies and reforms which are mainly based on the actual challenges that Africa is facing and the ultimate goal it envisions to achieve. Africa also needs to earnestly ‘conainise’ (continentalise, nationalise and institutionalise) reforms and harmonisation strategies adopted from elsewhere.
Received: 18 October 2020
Accepted: 9 September 2021
Downloads
References
Adamu, Abebaw Yirga. “Internationalization of higher education in Africa: Introducing credit accumulation and transfer system.” International Journal of Public Policy, 8, no. 4/5/6 (2012): 199-213.
Adebisi, Foluke. “Decolonising education in Africa: Implementing the right to education by re-appropriating culture and indigeneity.” Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly, 67, no. 4 (2016): 433-451.
African Union Commission and European Commission. “Preface.” In Tuning and harmonisation of higher education: The African experience, edited by Charles Awono Onana, et al. 9-10. Bilabo: University of Deusto, 2014.
African Union. “Second Decade of Education for Africa (2006-2015): Plan of Action,” 2006, http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Dakar/pdf/AU%20SECOND%20DECADE%20ON%20EDUCTAION%202006-2015.pdf.
African Union. Harmonization of higher education programmes in Africa: A strategy for the African Union. Addis Ababa: African union, 2007.
African Union. “African quality rating mechanism (AQRM) survey questionnaire. Revised version,” 2013. https://au.int/sites/default/files/newsevents/workingdocuments/27609-wd-aqrm_q_english_august_2013.pdf.
African Union. “First progress report of the chairperson of the commission on academic mobility scheme in Africa,” 2018. https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/34072-doc-auc.report.academic.mobility.prc _.29.03.pdf.
Alemu, Sintayehu Kassaye. “African higher education and the Bologna Process.” European Journal of Higher Education, 9 no. 1 (2019): 118-132.
Asderaki, Foteini. “Researching the European Higher Education Area external effectiveness: Regime complexity and interplay.” European Journal of Higher Education, 9, no. 1 (2019): 40-57.
Association for the Development of Education in Africa. “Policy brief: Harmonization of higher education in Africa or why we need to hang in there together….” 2015, http://www.adeanet.org/en/system/files/policy_brief_harmonization_en.pdf.
Bergen Communiqué. “European Higher Education Area – Achieving the goals”. Communiqué of the Conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education. Bergen, 19-20 May 2005. http://ehea.info/media.ehea.info/file/20050412-13_Mondorf/67/6/BFUG5_8_Draft_579676.pdf.
Bologna Declaration. “Joint declaration of the European Ministers of Education,” 1999, https://www.eurashe.eu/library/bologna_1999_bologna-declaration-pdf/.
Brandle, Tobias. “Only a matter of education policy ideals? German professors’ perception of the Bologna Process.” Higher Education Quarterly, 70, no. 4 (2016): 354-383.
Broberg, Morten. “The EU’s legal ties with its former colonies: When old love never dies”. DIIS Working Paper, No. 2011:01, Danish Institute for International Studies, 2011. https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/44696/1/64506016X.pdf.
Carnoy, Martin. “Globalisation, educational trends and the open society”. Open Society Institute, Education Conference - Education and open society: A critical look at new perspectives and demands, 2005, https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/uploads/7fab0f35-4f84-4ed7-82d6-ee2346b7c142/carnoy_english.pdf.
Chao, Roger. J. “Reflections on the Bologna Process: the making of an Asia Pacific Higher Education Area.” European Journal of Higher Education, 1, no. 2-3 (2011): 102-118.
Charlier, Jean-Emile and Sarah Croche. “Can the Bologna Process make the move faster towards the development of an international space for higher education where Africa would find its place?” Journal of Higher Education in Africa, 7, no. 1&2 (2009): 39-59.
Charlier, Jean-Emile and Sarah. Croché. “The Bologna Process: A tool for Europe’s hegemonic project on Africa”. Power and Education, 3, no.3 (2011): 304-316.
Chou, Meng-Hsuan and Pauline Ravinet. “The rise of ‘higher education regionalism’: An agenda for higher education research.” In Handbook of higher education policy and governance, edited by Jeroen Huisman, Harry De Boer, David D. Dill, and Manuel Souto-Otero, 361–378. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2015.
Crosier, David and Teodora Parveva. The Bologna Process: Its impact on higher education development in Europe and beyond. Paris: UNESCO, 2013.
European Commission. “Harmonisation of higher education in Africa,” 2015, https://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/sites/default/files/harmonisation_factsheet.pdf.
European Commission. “Towards the European Higher Education Area by 2025,” 2018, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/news/towards-european-education-area-2025-2018-may-22_en.
European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice. “The European Higher Education Area in 2018: Bologna Process implementation report”. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2018.
Garwe, E. Chiyevo and Lovemore Gwati. “The role of international and regional quality assurance bodies.” Higher Education Research, 3, no. 1 (2018): 15-22.
Gaye, Mamadou. “Western influences and activities in Africa.” Journal of Third World Studies, 15, no. 1 (1998): 65-78.
Hahn, Karola and Damitew Teferra. “Tuning as instrument of systematic higher education reform and quality enhancement: The African experience.” Tuning Journal for Higher education, 1, no. 1 (2013): 127-163.
Hoosen, Sarah, Neil Butcher, and Betarice K. Njenga. “Harmonisation of higher education programmes: A strategy for the African Union.” African Integration and Development Review, 3, no. 1 (2009): 1-36.
Kehm, Barbara M. “The future of the Bologna Process -The Bologna Process of the future.” European Journal of Education, 45, no. 4 (2010): 529-534.
Khelfaoui, Hocine. “The Bologna Process in Africa: Globalization or return to ‘colonial situation’?” Journal of Higher Education in Africa, 7 no. 1/2 (2009): 23-40.
Klemenčič, Manja. “20 Years of the Bologna Process in a Global Setting: The external dimension of the Bologna Process revisited.” European Journal of Higher Education, 9, no.1 (2019): 2-6.
Knight, Jane. “A model for the regionalization of higher education: The role and contribution of tuning.” Tuning Journal for Higher education, 1, no. 1 (2013): 105-125.
London Communiqué. “European higher education in a global setting: A strategy for the external dimension of the Bologna Process,” London, 17-18 May 2007. http://www.ehea.info/media.ehea.info/file/EHEA_in_a_Global_Context/24/2/Strategy_plus_possible_actions_597242.pdf.
Lunt, Ingrid. “The implementation of the BP for the development of a European qualification in psychology.” European Psychologist, 10, no. 2 (2005): 86-92.
Mampane, Ruth M., Margaret F. Omidire, and Folake Ruth Aluko. “Decolonising higher education in Africa: Arriving at a glocal solution.” South African Journal of Education, 38, no.4 (2018): 1-9.
Matthews, David. “Bologna Process still ‘treading water’, say critics”. The World University Ranking, May 29, 2018, https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/bologna-process-still-treading-water-say-critics.
Mitchell, Douglas E. and Selin Yildiz Nielsen. “Internationalisation and globalisation in higher education.” In Globalisation, Education and Management, edited by Hector Cuadra-Montiel, 3-22. London: IntechOpen, 2012.
Mohamedbhai, Goolam. “Towards an African higher education and research space (AHERS): Summary report,” 2013, http://www.adeanet.org/en/system/files/resources/ahers_summary_report.pdf.
Moscovitz, Hannah and Hila Zahavi. “The Bologna Process as a foreign policy endeavour: Motivations and reactions to the externalisation of European higher education.” European Journal of Higher Education, 9, no. 1 (2019): 7-22.
Nabaho, Lazarus and Wilberforce Turyasingura. “An exploration of the ‘African (Union Commission’s) perspective’ of quality and quality assurance in higher education: Latent voices in the African Quality Rating Mechanism (AQRM).” Tuning Journal for Higher Education, 6, no.2 (2019): 73-95.
Ocheni, Stephen, Basil C. Nwankwo. Analysis of Colonialism and Its Impact in Africa. Cross-Cultural Communication, 8 no. 3 (2012): 46-54.
Ocholla, Dennis. “Decolonizing higher education in Africa: Implications and possibilities for university libraries.” International Insights, 81, no.6 (2020).
OECD. “Executive Summary.” In Higher Education to 2030, Volume 2, Globalisation, 13-16. Paris: OECD, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264075375-en.
Oyewole, Olusola. “African harmonisation: An academic process for a political end?” Chronicle of African Higher Education, 2013, http://www.inhea.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Oyewole-Harmonisation.pdf.
Pechar, Hans. “The decline of an academic oligarchy: The Bologna Process and ‘Humboldt’s last warriors.” In European higher education at the crossroads: Between the Bologna Process and national reforms, edited by Adrian Curaj, Peter Scott, Lazar Vlasceanu, and Lesley Wilson, 613-630. Dordrecht: Springer, 2012.
Rodney, Walter. How Europe underdeveloped Africa. London: Bogle-L’Ouverture Publications and Dare Salaam: Tanzanian Publishing House, 1973.
Shabani, Juma, Peter Okebukola, Olusola Oyewole. “Quality assurance in Africa: Towards a continental higher education and research space.” International Journal of African Higher Education, 1, no. 1 (2014): 139-171.
Shabani, Juma, Peter. Okebukola, and Olusola Oyewole. “Regionalization of quality assurance in Africa.” In Regionalization of African higher education, edited by Jane Knight and Emnet. T. Woldegiorgis, 93-112. Rotterdam: Sense Publisher, 2017.
Sorbonne Declaration. “Joint declaration on harmonisation of the architecture of the European higher education system,” 1998, http://www.ehea.info/media.ehea.info/file/1998_Sorbonne/61/2/1998_Sorbonne_Declaration_English_552612.pdf.
Tauch, Christian. “The Bologna Process: State of implementation and external dimension.” In Opening up to the wider world: The external dimension of the Bologna Process, edited by Franziska Muche, 23-30. Bonn: Lemmens Verlags-and Mediengesellschaft mbH, 2005.
Teferra, Damtew. “The Bologna Process: The experience and challenges for Africa.” In The Bologna Process and the shaping of the future knowledge societies: Conference Report from the Third Conference on Knowledge and Politics, the University of Bergen, May 18-20th 2005, edited by Tor Halvorsen and Attle Nyhagen, 287-293. Bergen: University of Bergen, 2005.
Teferra, Damtew. “The international dimension of higher education in Africa: Status, challenges, and prospects.” In Higher education in Africa: The international dimension, edited by Damtew Teferra and Jane Knight, 44-79. Accra: Association of African University, 2008.
UNESCO. “Higher education in a globalized society: UNESCO Education Position Paper.” Paris: UNESCO, 2004.
UNESCO. “The new dynamics of higher education and research for societal change and development”. World Conference on Higher Education. Communiqué. July 5-8, 2009, Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO. “Revised convention on the recognition of studies, certificates, diplomas, degrees and other academic qualifications in higher education in African States.” 12 December 2014, Addis Ababa, 2014.
UNESCO. “Evaluation of UNESCO’s regional conventions on the recognition of qualifications in higher education.” Paris: UNESCO, 2016.
Westerheijden, F. Don, Eric Beerkens, Leon Cremonini, Jeroen Huisman, Barbara Kehm, Aleksandra Kovac, Predrag Lazetic, et al. The First Decade of Working on the European Higher Education Area: The Bologna Process Independent Assessment: Executive Summary, Overview and Conclusions. Ghent: University of Ghent, 2010.
Woldegiorgis, Emnet T. “Conceptualizing harmonization of higher education systems: The application of regional integration theories on higher education studies.” Higher Education Studies, 3 no. 2 (2013): 12-23.
Woldegiorgis, Ement T. Regionalization of higher education in Africa: The operationalization of the African Union higher education harmonization strategy. Berline: Lit Verlag, 2017.
Woldegiorgis, Emnet T., Petronella Jonck, and Anne Goujon. “Regional higher education reform initiatives in Africa: A comparative analysis with the Bologna Process.” International Journal of Higher Education, 4, no.1 (2015): 241-253.
Woldegiyorgis, Ayenachew. A. “Harmonisation of higher education in Africa and Europe: Policy convergence at supranational level.” Tuning Journal for Higher Education, 5 no. 2 (2018): 133-157.
Zgaga, Pavel. Looking out: The Bologna Process in a global setting. On the “External Dimension” of the Bologna Process. Oslo: Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research, 2006.
Zmas, Aristotelis. 2015. “Global impacts of the Bologna Process: International perspectives, local particularities.” Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 45, no. 5 (2015): 727-747.
Authors are required to sign and submit a copyright transfer agreement after acceptance but before publication of their manuscript. To that effect, they receive, from the Managing Editor of Tuning Journal for Higher Education, a standard copyright assignment form designed along the following lines:
1. Authorship:
The author who signs the copyright transfer agreement must be the sole creator of the work or legally acting on behalf of and with the full agreement of all the contributing authors.
2. Copyright and Code of conduct:
a) Authors warrant that their work is original; has not been previously copyrighted or published in any form; is not under consideration for publication elsewhere; its submission and publication do not violate TJHE Ethical Guidelines for Publication and any codes (of conduct), privacy and confidentiality agreements, laws or any rights of any third party; and no publication payment by the Publisher (University of Deusto) is required.
b) Authors are solely liable for the consequences that may arise from third parties’ complaints about the submitted manuscript and its publication in Tuning Journal for Higher Education (TJHE).
c) Authors grant to the Publisher the worldwide, sub-licensable, and royalty-free right to exploit the work in all forms and media of expression, now known or developed in the future, for educational and scholarly purposes.
d) Authors retain the right to archive, present, display, distribute, develop, and republish their work (publisher's version) to progress their scientific career provided the original publication source (Tuning Journal) is acknowledged properly and in a way that does not suggest the Publisher endorses them or their use of the wortk.
e) Authors warrant that no permissions or licences of any kind will be granted that might infringe the rights granted to the Publisher.
3. Users:
Tuning Journal for Higher Education is an Open Access publication. Its content is free for full and immediate access, reading, search, download, distribution and reuse in any medium or format only for non-commercial purposes and in compliance with any applicable copyright legislation, without prior permission from the Publisher or the author(s). In any case, proper acknowledgement of the original publication source must be made and any changes to the original work must be indicated clearly and in a manner that does not suggest the author’s and or Publisher’s endorsement whatsoever. Any other use of its content in any medium or format, now known or developed in the future, requires prior written permission of the copyright holder.
1.jpg)
1.jpg)
.jpg)
1.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
