Peer tutoring programmes: Comprehensive training and generic competences from the experience of tutors in a Chilean university

Camila Véliz and Oscar Navarrete[*]

doi: https://doi.org/10.18543/tjhe.2983

Received: 28 February 2024
Accepted: 28 February 2025
E-published: June 2025

Abstract: Like other countries, higher education in Chile still has important socio-economic gaps to be addressed. As part of the strategies to attend this challenge, peer tutoring programmes have developed considerably in recent years. Much of the research on peer tutoring in higher education has focused primarily on the impact on the students being tutored, and only a small part of that research has focused on the benefits or contributions to the student-tutors themselves. Based on a case study of peer tutoring programmes in a Chilean university, the experience of tutor participation and its relationship to comprehensive training competences is collected from interviews. The information was analysed based on the following categories: understanding of comprehensive training, perceptions of their role, motivation and learning from their experience. The main results aim to highlight the relationship between generic interpersonal, instrumental and systemic competences and their link to comprehensive training. It is concluded that interpersonal competences amount to the main benefit self-perceived by the tutors, where self-motivation, learning orientation, planning strategies and strengthening their autonomy and identity emerged as the main competences developed. While both students and tutors benefit from peer tutoring, tutors are a key participant in the integral formation, strengthening their social commitment.

Keywords: Peer tutoring; higher education; tutor’s experiences; comprehensive training; generic competencies.

I. Higher Education in Chile

Since 1990, with the return to democracy, Chile has practically quintupled the coverage of students entering Higher Education. In the last five years alone (2020-2024), national undergraduate enrolment has increased by 10.9% (Subsecretaría de Educación Superior 2024). According to Williamson and Sánchez (2024) this has led to a higher number of graduates and a smaller economic return due to increased competitiveness in accessing employment opportunities.

For Mella and Moya this great expansion is considered a case study at international level, particularly what happened with the implementation of neoliberal policies that increased this educational offer, but also the expansion of student credit systems, where access and financing policies have been prioritised, but that has also led to an indebtedness crisis, to which the authors point out a new challenge: the “need for public policies of retention and effective graduation” (Mella and Moya 2024, 38).

In the national context, Chile’s Higher Education offer is made up of two main areas of training: university and technical-professional, distributed among 51 universities, 37 technical training centres (CFT), 29 professional institutes (IP) and 3 military academies and schools. According to official data, universities account for 58.8% of the total enrolment in higher education in 2024 (Subsecretaría de Educación Superior 2024).

In the last decade, higher education in Chile has faced significant difficulties associated with the inequity of its education system. The OECD considers that educational outcomes are insufficient and that maintaining inequities in the system continues to have direct consequences for students and Chilean society in general and has recommended that the country must provide support to students from disadvantaged sectors, strengthening specific support programmes, and adapting to student diversity by incorporating diverse approaches and learning objectives (OECD 2017). In this scenario, there are legitimate questions about the real contribution of the higher education system to social mobility in the country, considering that it has been reproducing these inequalities (Quaresma and Villalobos 2022).

In terms of dropout, it remains high, and dropout is inversely proportional to socio-economic status; inequalities persist in access to higher education and study success (OECD 2017; PNUD 2017). In this regard, some measures to address these inequalities have been ‘affirmative action’ policies in higher education, which are strategies that “seek to produce greater representation in higher education of historically excluded social groups, and in turn, allow these subjects to have significant social and learning experiences in their university trajectories” (Leyton 2014, 11). These measures, together with other national policies such as free access to higher education for students from the most poverty-stricken segments, the Programme for Access to Higher Education (In Spanish: PACE), among others - in one way or another - are aimed at reversing the reproduction of the inequalities that are present in the Chilean education system.

In the same line, Mella and Moya point out that, despite progress, social origin continues to be a determining factor in access to Higher Education, and that therefore one of the main challenges of public policy is to strengthen student welfare programmes: “that recognise not only the barriers to access, but also the barriers to transit in the education system” (Mella and Moya 2024, 49). For example, in Chilean universities, student peer tutoring programmes have emerged strongly as an initiative to address such challenges (Narro and Arredondo 2013; Santelices, Catalán, and Horn 2018; Véliz and Navarrete 2023; Venegas-Ramos and Gairín 2020; Yucra 2021).

II. Competence orientation

Moreover, with regard to the broader dimension of university training, the transition of education from a teaching-centred perspective to a student-centred learning focus has challenged educational institutions to ask themselves in greater depth how students learn (Zabalza 2007), which leads to an understanding of the social, economic and cultural contexts from which students entering higher education come, and the competences that students develop in their educational trajectories.

Along these lines, the Tuning Project on the challenges in higher education from the Bologna process facing 21st century training, “came to offer a methodology to innovate the curriculum and connect higher education to the needs given by social context” (Sandoval and Ormazábal 2021, 57), and has promoted a reflective and critical framework on the comprehensive training of competences (generic and specific) in higher education through seeking consensus on the achievement of learning through the development of skills that entail internalised, mobilised and applied knowledge (Beneitone et al. 2007).

This orientation towards competence development is particularly important to address the socio-economic stratification and educational inequalities already noted. Villa and Poblete consider the great paradox in education, where the advancement of knowledge is inversely proportional to the gap between more developed and less developed countries. Faced with this, the authors consider that universities should be aware of this phenomenon: “it is necessary to enhance students’ awareness and social commitment so that they will place their capacities and competences at the service of others” (Villa and Poblete 2008, 31). The development of these competences makes it possible to contribute to the narrowing of socio-cultural and economic gaps.

One strategy that has connected the idea of student-centred learning and the understanding of this learning from the social context has been peer tutoring programmes, which is the main object of analysis in this paper. These programmes constitute “a privileged space for effective and affective bonding of students in Higher Education. The peer methodology reinforces the sense of belonging and identity of the student body and allows for a more holistic approach to learning” (Véliz and Navarrete 2023, 55).

The research presented in this paper was carried out at the Universidad Alberto Hurtado (UAH), a higher education institution founded in 1997 by the Society of Jesus in Chile, which, despite being a private university, is recognised as a non-profit organisation with a vocation for public service, a fact that is reflected in an academic project that focuses on the Humanities and Social Sciences.

The university has a total enrolment of 8,772 students, distributed in 7 doctoral programmes, 29 master’s programmes, and 49 undergraduate programmes. The latter are the ones with the highest number of students enrolled: 82.9% (CNED 2024).

On the other hand, the UAH participates in several public policies aimed at reversing inequalities in the Chilean education system, including the PACE programme (which allows access to Higher Education for secondary students with high social vulnerability and who come from municipal schools), and the Free Higher Education policy (which benefits students from the lowest 60% of the country’s income bracket).

Since 2015, the University has been encouraging the standardisation of all its undergraduate training programmes to the Transferable Credit System (SCT in Spanish), which makes it possible to better measure the time students need to dedicate to the development of the competences stated in the academic programmes. In addition, and mainly due to the initiatives of the specific programmes, there was implemented more than 20 peer tutoring programmes for its undergraduate programmes (around 50% of the total number of programmes at the university), which facilitates the transition and permanence in higher education, accompanying students in their academic trajectory.

III. Comprehensive training and peer tutoring programmes

It is important to understand that university education goes far beyond specific academic training in certain fields of knowledge, and it has become increasingly necessary to understand it from the paradigm of lifelong learning. Delors points out that this type of understanding must be broadened “because in addition to the necessary adaptations related to the mutations of professional life, it must be a continuous structuring of the human being, of their knowledge and skills, but also of their faculty of judgement and action” (Delors 1996, 20).

This idea alludes to a much more comprehensive notion of education in general, and for Higher Education in particular, it implies a series of challenges. In the words of Zabalza (2007), the incorporation of students with different educational trajectories, the flexibilization of the educational offer, a more professionalising orientation of university education, or the diversification of the exclusively academic paradigm of the educational offer in Higher Education.

Comprehensive training points precisely to this broader perspective of education, which ensures the growth of the human person as a whole. In the words of Nova, comprehensive training “seeks harmonious development, although all the dimensions of the individual unfold in different ways, with different intensity, at different times” (Nova 2017, 186).

With a focus oriented rather to permanence than to entry to higher education, peer tutoring programmes have had notable development in recent years (Araneda-Guirriman et al. 2020; Gómez et al. 2002; Huircalaf and Rodríguez-Gómez 2020; Rahmer, Miranda and Gil 2016; Vásquez 2015; Véliz and Cruz 2023; Venegas-Ramos and Gairín 2020), and it has been a strategy that, together with others, allows higher education institutions to take charge of the new training scenarios, in which Chile, like other countries, has found itself at the crossroads produced by the great increase of coverage -which impacts the number of students and academic teams- and the consequent changes in the entrance-profile to higher education, where the great challenge has been to sustain institutional strategies that guarantee quality, but that can also ensure conditions of equity and training relevance (Pey et al. 2012).

Comprehensive training emerges here as a connecting bridge between the immediate quality purposes of the training process (graduate profile, development of professional skills, among others) and the higher purposes of training, associated with the promotion of equity, and the concern for all other dimensions of the human being.

The understanding of training towards integral human development -as a coherent and interrelated whole- is perhaps the most studied idea on educational theories. One of the referents in this discussion is -without a doubt- the declaration in the UNESCO Report chaired by Delors (1996), which establishes that 21st century education must be understood from four fundamental pillars: i) learning to know; ii) learning to do; iii) learning to live together, and iv) learning to be. In this sense, comprehensive training “promotes the multidimensional growth of human beings, developing in them all their characteristics, conditions and potential to achieve their full realisation” (Alonzo et al. 2016, 110).

Following the ideas of Delors (1996), peer tutoring can be constituted as a privileged space for the formation of the ‘Being’, a synthesis of the relationships between knowledge, practice, and coexistence with other people, which marks a different way of tertiary education. Part of this transformative impulse was, in one way or another, also included in the European Higher Education Area (García et al. 2004), incorporating within the development of professional competencies, generic competencies associated with the development of persons and their social development, beyond formal education.

As Villa and Poblete (2008) point out, and which is reinforced by UNESCO education is a privileged space for young people to engage with social causes and responsibilities, as it can “offer them sufficient opportunities to relate to the world in an engaged way” (UNESCO 2022, 61). In this case, peer tutors play a very important role that needs to be discussed: “role clarity is challenging for those in ‘in-between’ positions: the unique positionality of being situated between faculty and students is both the opportunity and challenge of peer tutoring” (Abbot, Graf, and Chatfield 2018, 253).

IV. Peer tutoring and competences

Tutoring is a valuable mechanism that has been used in the educational field and has positioned itself as one of the most important support strategies in the socio-educational paths of students. This strategy has had a new impulse and particular interest in the context of post-pandemic education, considering that the global educational system had to adjust itself to new conditions of training and supporting of its students (Gallagher-Mackay, Mundy, Feitosa, and Asim 2022; Sabzalieva et al. 2022; MINEDUC 2023; UNESCO 2022).

Peer tutoring can be defined as “the acquisition of knowledge and skill through active helping and supporting among status equals or matched companions, where both tutees and tutors’ benefit from the transaction” (Topping 2015, 1); and its effectiveness in higher education has been widely demonstrated (Arco-Tirado, Fernández-Martín, and Hervás-Torres 2020; Boud, Cohen and Sampson 2013; Colver and Fry 2015; Topping 2015).

Peer tutoring specifically contributes with a closer, less hierarchical type of socio-formative intervention, which contributes to the transition from secondary education to university (Véliz and Navarrete 2023) but also contributes to the construction of the ‘job’ of becoming a university student (Coulon 1995), accompanying students who transition from secondary education to higher education.

By accompanying the transition to university life, peer tutoring not only contributes in terms of its impact on academic results (grades, retention rates and timely graduation), but also in the comprehensive training of the people who are part of this strategy: students and tutors.

Within the research on peer tutoring strategies in higher education, a large part of it precisely explores its impact on the students who are tutored, but we found that only a small part of this research has focused on the benefits and specific impact on the tutors themselves. Among the findings of these enquiries, tutors are considered to have a high level of satisfaction when carrying out their role with new students. Tutors develop -at the very least- skills for their personal and professional life (Beltman and Schaeben 2012), improve their own communication and academic language skills (Thurston, Cockerill, and Chiang 2021); they deploy new connection and mediation skills between students and teachers (Abbot, Graf and Chatfield 2018) and they improve their engagement and understanding of the student body (Brown 2020).

Here lies an important part of the discussion. The scientific evidence reviewed for this research agrees that peer tutoring is an important part of the training process. This is also consistent with the results observed in the improvement of the learning of tutored students, and the place that these programmes have today in higher education. However, even with some attempts at institutionalisation, peer tutoring programmes are in the interstices of university education and there is a dispute between being either dependent programmes (of higher education institutions) or independent programmes (as a type of volunteering or university service-learning).

This leads to a permanent process of delimiting their action, which can be rather difficult to analyse without falling into conceptual extremisms: Dependent/Independent; Formal/Informal; or Professional/Novice. Therefore, in this research, we have chosen to analyse the contributions and benefits to tutors of peer tutoring programmes from a comprehensive training perspective, as they contribute to the student body by providing information about the university educational process, but also tutors support students’ personal well-being, institutional relationships and sense of belonging, as they interact more closely with them (Thomas et al. 2017).

V. Articulation between comprehensive training, generic competences, and peer mentoring

Taking as a reference the four pillars of education by Delors (1996) that we noted above. One of these pillars, the dimension of Being, was of special interest for our research, since this dimension can articulate the other 3 (learning to know, learning to do, and learning to live together), since by itself, the dimension of Being is a synthesis of comprehensive training, leaving the merely educational field: social transformation. The idea of transformation of society in education (Jurkova and Guo 2022; Martínez-Iñiguez, Tobón, and Soto-Curiel 2021; Ruano- Borbalan 2022; Torres and Cobo 2022) gives intrinsic importance to the training trajectories of the students, which is the idea that is at the heart of the dimension of the Being: “This development of the human being, which goes from birth to the end of life, is a dialectical process that begins with self-knowledge and then opens up to relationships with others” (Delors 1996, 107-108).

Therefore, in this paper we argue that peer tutoring favours the comprehensive training of students, a phenomenon that has been discussed in the last decade in the context of Higher Education (Abbot, Graf, and Chatfield 2018; Clarence 2016; Narro and Arredondo 2013; Bejar 2018; Delgado-García, Conde and Boza 2020; León-Carrascosa and Fernández-Díaz 2021; Thomas et al. 2017), and as Amor (2020, 93) points out “the need for guidance and tutorial action as a key element for the comprehensive training of university students is more than justified”.

For the purposes of this research and establishing a link between comprehensive training and the experience of student-tutors, we have considered the proposal by Villa and Poblete (2008) to analyse the generic competences that are deployed in this area.

The authors consider that competence-based learning means developing or deploying competences needed to interact on today’s world in general. In this context, and without discrediting universities in their obligation to train in all the professional dimensions they deem appropriate and necessary, the authors point out a holistic proposal for the development of generic competences which, by definition, are also articulated with: human rights; they are cross-cutting, integrate human capacities and strengthen autonomy and interrelation between people.

To operationalise this proposal for the development of generic competencies, Villa and Poblete (2008) proposes a taxonomy of competencies that is based on 3 main types: instrumental, interpersonal, and systemic.

Instrumental competences: considered as means or tools for obtaining a given end. Interpersonal competences: different capacities that enable people to interact well with others. Systemic competences: concerned with comprehension of an entire set or system. They require a combination of imagination, sensibility and ability to see how the parts of a whole are inter-related (Villa and Poblete 2008, 60).

These three types of competencies give rise to more specific generic competencies and can be developed/deployed in higher education, since -by being cross-cutting- they support the training trajectories that students are carrying out in their own disciplines, with their corresponding specific professional competencies. These instrumental, interpersonal, and systemic competencies were taken as a reference for the analysis of the research data.

Based on the elements set out in this research, we have drawn on the experience of the peer tutoring programmes at Universidad Alberto Hurtado in Chile, which openly ascribes to a comprehensive training from a competency-oriented perspective. This emphasis is operationalised in a pedagogical model that promotes training geared towards i) academic and professional excellence, ii) social justice and service, iii) comprehensive training, iv) reflective and critical training, and v) ethical training (UAH 2019).

UAH recognises all areas of personal development and aims to ensure that its students are “able to use, in a relevant and creative way, the specific competences that their disciplines provide them with, in order to build a fairer and more equitable society” (UAH 2019, 12).

In this paper we seek to communicate the results of the research project Learning and challenges of first-year tutoring programmes in the Faculty of Social Sciences and Education of Universidad Alberto Hurtado: a look at the experience of student-tutors from higher education courses. The purpose of this research was to learn about the participation experience of students who work as peer tutors and how this participation favours their comprehensive training during their careers. We will emphasise the possible articulations between the dimensions of comprehensive training and the generic competences for higher education.

VI. Research design

This research responded to the question: How do student-tutors live their experience related to their professional and comprehensive training from the accompaniment of first-year students? Specifically, this paper characterises the role, motivations and learning of student tutors that contribute to their comprehensive training, based on the description and discussion of a set of generic competences observed in their experience.

A case study methodological design was chosen with a qualitative approach due to its comprehensive interpretative nature (Flick 2009) that responds to the in-depth analysis of the experience of student-tutors at the Universidad Alberto Hurtado. According to the purposes of the research, the scope of the study was exploratory and descriptive (Yin 2003; Stake 2007, Stake 2013).

Specifically, the case study was instrumental (Yin 2003; Stake 2007), as Archenti (2018) indicates, the case plays the role of mediation for the understanding of a phenomenon that transcends the institution studied, the experience of student-tutors at a Chilean university, allows us to problematise the relationship between comprehensive training and generic competences in Higher Education in non-classroom spaces.

The semi-structured interview was used as a technique to produce information, which is characterised by generating a reflective dialogue on the subject of study (Denzin 2001). Specifically on the experience of senior student-tutors participating in peer tutoring programmes.

Regarding the interview instrument, and to ensure its relevance and quality, the research team developed the following actions:

•Construction of a preliminary version of an interview instrument according to the research objectives.

•Conducting interviews with four institutional experts. The objective was to identify how the university has favoured the implementation of peer tutoring programmes and what their perceptions are of the comprehensive training and competences of the students participating in these programmes that they observe.

•Based on these interviews and the theoretical review carried out, the interview instrument was adjusted, and themes were prioritised, based on Villa and Poblete’s (2008) model of generic competences in Higher Education according to their relevance to the context of study.

•Subsequently, an interview protocol was drawn up that included the identification of generic competences; instrumental, interpersonal and systemic, and their respective dimensions.

•In addition, a set of questions related to the motivations for participation and learning of students participating in peer tutoring programmes was developed.

The semi-structured interviews were developed in groups according to the specific discipline that implements the peer tutoring programme. They were conducted through the Zoom® virtual meeting platform. They were recorded and then transcribed for analysis.

In terms of ethical safeguards, participation was voluntary, confidential and anonymous. To this end, they were asked to give their authorisation and sign an informed consent form. When the research project was awarded, it was submitted for evaluation to the Ethics Committee of the Universidad Alberto Hurtado.

For the delimitation of the sample, as noted, at Universidad Alberto Hurtado more than 20 undergraduate programmes have implemented peer tutoring programmes. Ten of these programmes are developed in the faculties of Social Sciences and Education (the object of this study) and operate with a group of peer tutors from each programme, where -adjusted for enrolment size- each tutor accompanies 10 students (on average) per year. Specifically, the participants were students from these faculties who serve as tutors in their respective academic programmes.

A snowball or chain and convenience sampling strategy was used to contact students (Creswell 2013). Accordingly, tutors from the following undergraduate programmes participated voluntarily:

•Faculty of Education: Mathematics Pedagogy, Elementary Education, Special Education.

•Faculty of Social Sciences: Social Work, Geography, Sociology, Journalism and Anthropology.

Thus, the sample size was 18 tutors. The sample does not seek to be representative of the total universe of students at the university, but in coherence with a qualitative approach, we sought to deepen the participation experience of the student-tutors based on the criterion of data saturation.

For the analysis of the data produced, we worked with the categorical analysis proposal (Flick 2009). In coherence with the scope of the study, the transcripts of the interviews were first read in detail and coded according to the following categories: comprehensive training, role of the tutor, interpersonal competences, instrumental competences and systemic competences.

Based on the coding carried out, a matrix was drawn up that made it possible to synthesise and reduce the material to establish relationships between categories, which made it possible to prioritise the learning and competences that the tutors themselves recognise as fundamental for developing their role.

VII. Results

Peer tutoring programmes, where skills and competences are developed that benefit both students and tutors, and which -additionally- contribute to the job of becoming university students (Coulon 1995), constitute a comprehensive training space that is worth discussing from the perspective of tutors and whose main purpose is to accompany the university transit of first-year students in undergraduate programmes.

A common characteristic of the peer tutoring programmes developed at Alberto Hurtado University is that they are initiatives designed and implemented by the students of higher grades (tutors) for their peers entering their first year where they develop an annual accompaniment (voluntary participation) and are linked to the academic programmes through a representative of the respective academic team.

The accompaniment developed by the tutors is characterised by a series of socio-educational strategies aimed at the personal and social development of first-year students (Véliz and Navarrete 2023). Based on the interviews conducted, it was possible to identify that, although each peer tutoring programme has its own specific emphasis for each discipline of knowledge, the accompaniment developed is characterised by the following:

•Use collaborative learning strategies among peers.

•Provide guidance in the knowledge of the institutional culture and of the specific programme.

•Generate social networks (at institutional level and among peers).

•Strengthen students’ sense of belonging to each specific degree programme.

•Contribute to the development of adaptation skills, time management, study strategies, oral and written communication.

The analysis allowed us to identify and group together a set of actions from these tutorial strategies that combine individual and group actions according to the requirements of each first-year student:

Individual actions. Tutorials for academic reinforcement and management of specific academic support, accompaniment for personal situations that affect the adaptation and permanence of students, guidance for students in their first year of university on institutional functioning, scholarships and socio-economic benefits.

Group actions. Welcome activities, assessment preparation workshops, study habits workshop, intergenerational meeting events, activities to approach professional practice, organisation of self-care and mental health actions.

Based on the above, regarding the generic competences that are perceived by the tutors, it was possible to identify that, as a relevant skill, interpersonal competences are the main self-perceived benefit for peer tutors. On the other hand, instrumental and systemic competences are perceived by the tutors as skills that helped them to improve their own understanding of learning, their planning skills, leadership and orientation towards professional quality. In the following, we will review these competences in detail.

Interpersonal competencies: key to peer mentoring

Within interpersonal competencies, tutors’ self-motivation emerges as a strong characteristic of their identity and role within peer tutoring programmes. When asked about their motivations for becoming tutors, many of them point to their own experience as first-year students in higher education, and the difficulties they themselves had, as one tutor points out:

It was quite interesting to have been able to become a support for first-year students, helping them in their integration into university life, because we all know how difficult it is to face a new context after having spent years at school (Tutor for the Mathematics Pedagogy study programme).

The tutors’ own experience when they entered the first year of university was later transformed into the main interest in participating in these programmes: the possibility of filling the support gaps that they had identified when entering university, and the process of change that the transition from secondary education to higher education means. In this regard, another tutor points out:

I have always had the interest -so to speak- of being able to accompany my classmates a little, because, for example, when I got into university I think that I lacked that help a lot, because the change from school to studying at university is quite large, and for people who did not have such a well-established study method, it was a bit difficult to adapt (Tutor for the Anthropology study programme).

By sharing their own experience as first-year university students, tutors perceive that their contribution to the adaptation to higher education is a key factor. Following what Coulon (1995) stated about the challenge of transition from secondary education to higher education, tutors transmit relevant information and experiences to their first-year classmates about the “job” of becoming university students. In this sense, tutors become a key (and necessary) actor to accompany, in a much closer way, this process of uncertainty and adaptation to the university environment. In this regard, two tutors related their own analyses of this process of transition to higher education, and the importance of accompanying their tutees in this process:

It is a diverse context that is entering the university. These are people who have had fewer support systems in their schooling process, people who really feel at disadvantage in front of their peers due to the same sociocultural, socioeconomic capital. People who, actually, have often a low level of prior knowledge, so it is much more difficult for them to do something that, perhaps, is much easier for other people (Tutor for the Special Education study programme).

It is important to let first-year classmates feel that they are more familiar with the university, or to feel in a safer space. Sometimes it happens that they are in their comfort zone at school, and after entering university, one tends to feel like more of an adult, with more responsibilities, such as attending classes, which is one’s responsibility (Tutor for the Geography study programme).

Finally, tutors perceive that when they exercise their role in peer tutoring programmes with their first-year classmates, they validate their own professional identity, and in this accompaniment process, they also provide feedback and better delineate their personal and their professional “beings”. One of the tutors, who was a graduate of the course itself, mentioned:

Students often ask me about how the study courses affected me, how I dealt with them. Then they ask me what I am doing now, because -in one way or another- they see through me what their work field is going to be like or also how they are going to face their study, the tests, classes, or exams (Tutor for the Sociology study programme).

In this way, the tutors also recognize that this is a feedback process between students (tutors and tutees), and that that helps the support of the tutoring. At this point, one tutor noted:

Being a tutor means you are not going to be neither the teacher nor the psychologist of your peer, but in the end, we are the ones who are going to accompany them, sharing the same experience that we had, so, in the end, I feel that it is an element of experience, of sharing, and of feedback with our pairs. To this day, I see it that way and that is what I like about the programme, which is this interaction that can occur between students and ultimately creates all these bonds until the end of the study programme, which is equally important for the development of a person in their university career (Tutor for the Journalism study programme).

In summary, tutors, in the exercise of their role, by contributing their own experience of when they entered Higher Education, strengthen their interaction skills with others while reinforcing their professional convictions. In doing so, they not only help their first-year peers to have a much closer accompaniment in their transition to Higher Education, but also, through their own action, they also contribute to a different form of knowledge construction, a type of disinterested, genuine and motivational accompaniment.

Instrumental competences: learning orientation and identity-disciplinary strengthening

The point of origin of peer tutoring programmes has a clear emphasis on academic results, which is why one of the main distinctive features that tutors recognize as a skill that they have developed with their first-year classmates, it is precisely the ‘orientation to learning’. In this competence, learning is used as a strategy depending on the purpose pursued, “based on the recognition of the learning system itself and the awareness of learning itself” (Villa and Poblete 2013, 157). Regarding this recognition of the learning orientation, two tutors mention:

It has been very useful for me to be able to analyse strategies, to be able to organize times with them, to be able to learn, above all, from them, because perhaps one is a tutor, but one is constantly learning, so many times the tutees themselves teach us to be able to improve (Tutor for the Mathematics Pedagogy study programme).

Many times, you can learn more outside the classroom than inside of it since feedback between peers is much more rewarding and useful. So, I said, ‘I think this is the instance in which I can help someone’ and that moved me a lot (Tutor for the Journalism study programme).

In this same sense, regardless of the specific contents that both the different peer tutoring programmes and the tutors themselves could prioritise, being oriented towards learning, as any social intervention process, requires planning. This exercise puts into action a significant number of more specific skills, which are strongly linked to the most specific competencies of each discipline. Villa and Poblete (2013) point out that the development of planning competence necessarily also entails the deployment of other associated competences: “Analytical and critical thinking, decision making, problem solving, time management, project management, rationality, etc.” (Villa and Poblete 2013, 163). The links between these competencies were clearly identified in the interviews with the tutors in our research. One of the tutors specifically referred to the flexibility of this planning depending on the context, and notes:

Something that we also saw during the course of our studies is being tactful with the students and in this case with our tutees. We cannot turn a blind eye to the situations that happen just to comply with a plan that perhaps has no importance for the students at that moment, because they have something much more relevant in their lives that is happening, and if they cannot deal with that, they would not be able to do anything else (Tutor for the Mathematics Pedagogy study programme)

Another tutor referred more specifically to how their own planning competence as tutors is transferred to their tutees:

I was not a teacher with them, and I was not a student either, so they felt more confident (...) it was also possible to generate a more permanent connection where the students still request support and that is still good. In the end that is what it is about for me: the accompaniment. I started by talking about the cognitive skills and the soft skills that one must have to start studying, entering the world of the university, I showed them study strategies, I was presenting the subjects, the schedules, I gave a calendar to each student so that they could start planning themselves (Tutor for the Special Education study programme).

Finally, the instrumental competences that tutors develop in their role with first-year students, as they are linked to learning processes and, in addition, as they are deploying professional development skills in each of their disciplines of origin, the ‘learning to know’ (Delors 1996) becomes a much more localised type of competence, because not only is there the fact of learning the ‘job’ of being university students in general, but also the ‘job’ of becoming professionals in training in their own discipline in particular. As it is a task carried out among students from the same undergraduate programme, this generates a much more synergistic and positive identity-disciplinary learning, particularly for the tutors, who have the ideal possibility of putting their own professional learning into practice with their first-year peers.

Systemic competencies: leadership and quality of peer tutoring

An important characteristic of the peer tutoring programmes that were the subject of this research is that they are projects that are designed, planned, and executed mainly by the tutors themselves (who, in turn, are students) of the different undergraduate programmes. With a greater or lesser level of autonomy, it is the tutors themselves who develop the purposes and methodologies of these support strategies. Certainly, Alberto Hurtado University has made progress in providing them with a minimum training system regarding the tutorial function, but, in general, the space for autonomy of the tutors in these programmes may be one of their most distinctive characteristics. For example, an elementary education tutor tells us that:

The programme works based on volunteering and on the work of the people involved in the project, and in that case that work is completely managed by students. From time to time there are meetings with the Director [of the degree programme] for specific issues or for topics more than anything to support us with promoting the programme, etc., but everything is always created, managed, and guided by students and we always try to function in a much more constructivist logic (Tutor for the Elementary Education study programme).

This leadership exercised by the students who are tutors, gives -in addition to a particular identity to each programme- a sense of horizontal learning community that provides the tutors with a high sense of responsibility and concern for the quality of their work carried out with their tutees. This identity is recognized by a tutor as a learning community. In this regard, she points out:

They are the most powerful learning communities because they teach you leadership development, interpersonal relationships, introducing yourself to other people and that is not something that everyone has (Tutor for the Special Education study programme).

For another tutor from the journalism programme, this identity is precisely the horizontality between students (peer tutoring), and she points out that even this could fill a gap in terms of the students’ personal well-being. She points out:

We are students who help other students, I think that accounts for collaboration. For me it means supporting each other, helping the other person in things that perhaps, in an academic regard, the university does not provide so much personalized support, but rather the university provides generalized knowledge, but does not worry about the personal and individual well-being of each student (Tutor for the Journalism study programme).

In this sense, tutors develop a broader view of university education and are recognised as a significant actor who is located precisely in the gap between the students’ own trajectories (in their process of entering Higher Education) and the learning expectations of the graduate profiles of their academic programmes. In many cases, this gap is seen as an integral contribution to the socio-emotional well-being of students entering university, which means that tutors - having developed instrumental and interpersonal competences - are able to visualise more comprehensive strategies for improvement through peer support.

VIII. Discussion

In peer tutoring, as proposed by Topping (2015), both tutees and tutors benefit themselves from this relationship. Although the research carried out on the topic has addressed the impact on tutored students more extensively, research on the specific impact on the tutors themselves has been much less explored, and this is precisely what has been made visible in the findings of this research.

By combining the categorical analysis of tutors’ own perceptions of the benefits and impact of peer tutoring programmes; the analysis from the 4 axes of comprehensive training by Delors (1996) and the taxonomy of generic competencies of higher education proposed by Villa and Poblete (2013), it is possible to establish some articulations among these elements to better understand the contribution to tutors in these programmes.

As evidenced in the results, peer tutors develop generic competences which, on the one hand, point to the 3 types identified by Villa and Poblete (2008): interpersonal, instrumental and systemic, but on the other hand, also contribute to broadening these categories towards a notion of integral training which aims to develop all the dimensions of the human being, and which has as its ethical-political horizon not only training but also the transformation of society.

In the interpersonal competences, mainly related to the skills to relate to and collaborate with other people for the achievement of common purposes, the peer tutors recognise that, in the development of their role in the tutorials, they also strengthen their own self-motivation, as, having been students on the undergraduate programmes (just like their peers), they permanently value and re-signify their own role as students, but with a different degree of responsibility when they identify themselves as tutors, as they pay special attention to the way in which this knowledge is transferred to their peers. This generates a type of feedback that is not reduced to the development of specific competences but transcends a certain way of constituting themselves as students of a specific degree course (strengthening of identity).

In the development of instrumental competences, which is oriented towards the means for achieving certain professional competence goals, tutors not only provide guidance in the specific profession of the disciplines in which the undergraduate programmes they contribute to are inscribed, but also all of them collaborate in the construction of the profession of being university students. In this sense, although the tutors develop a clear learning orientation, they also transfer their own experiences and the decisions they themselves made as students, so that the development of generic competences such as time management, planning strategies and decision-making is guided by the tutors from a professional, but also experiential, knowledge, which contributes to a more comprehensive view of learning.

Finally, regarding the development of systemic competences, tutors contribute directly to the development of an overall vision of university education, enabling students (and themselves) to assess how contributions from different perspectives, academic trajectories and support contribute in an integral way to professional, but also personal, education. In this way, tutors strengthen their own autonomy (as they now have a collegiate voice that gives them their own experience), improve their methodologies and techniques for accompanying students (which adapts to the characteristics of the student body) and exercise a leadership role that is recognised and valued by their peers.

The tutors, by strengthening their own competences; re-signifying their own identity and role (from the profession of becoming students in their own discipline); having the possibility of transferring their knowledge and experiences, developing a sense of responsibility (as a learning community); strengthening their autonomy and leadership; recognise and reinforce the indivisible dimension of the integral human being in ‘learning to be’, since, in the exercise of their role, they not only deploy their own personal professional values in their training trajectories (as professionals), but also, in ‘learning to be’, they develop as key facilitators of integral training (as people).

By further exploring the motivations of the tutors - as also suggested by Beltman and Schaeben (2012), it was possible to advance to a broader motivational framework that allowed us to identify competences deployed by peer tutors at different levels (interpersonal, instrumental, and systemic), each of which may become areas of interest for future research, but may also be areas for training and continuous improvement of the peer tutoring programmes themselves in the future. As Amor (2020) points out, university students need to be mentored in the professional, academic and personal dimensions, and, in the author’s opinion, they contribute to quality and innovation in universities.

Peer tutoring programmes recognise the social gaps and transit barriers in the education system (Mella and Moya 2024; Narro and Arredondo 2013), and allow tutors - in the development of their own and students’ competences - to contribute as protagonists in the transformation of the social, to enhance their social commitment to the service of others (Villa and Poblete 2008), and allow them to collaborate far beyond training (or the formality of training to be more precise); making integral education itself a process of permanent recognition of human heterogeneity and the development of the human being in its multiple dimensions.

Limitations and future lines of research

An important limitation of the research is that the results of this case study on the motivations and learning of tutors in peer tutoring programmes at a Chilean university do not aim to generalise the role played by tutors in all other higher education institutions, but rather allowed us to make the study more complex with regard to university transition processes by looking more deeply into the importance of the articulation of generic competences developed from this role in comprehensive training.

A second limitation of the study is that, although it focuses on the role of tutors, a possible triangulation could also have been explored regarding the same role, but from other actors such as the tutored students themselves or the management/academic teams. This limitation thus opens the first line of inquiry for future research into the perceptions of students and academics regarding the role of tutors in the development of generic competences and comprehensive training.

Other possible lines of research that can be explored could be linked to the methodologies used to accompany peer tutoring programmes, both individual and group. The way in which the tutors themselves implement, adapt, evaluate and improve these strategies can contribute to nurturing the methodological field of these initiatives, which could also visualise institutional alternatives for supporting and financing these programmes.

Finally, we believe that it is necessary to create more collegial training and development strategies for tutors (Clarence 2016), which can mediate between the autonomy of the tutors themselves and the more general orientations of the higher education institutions where peer tutoring programmes operate. In this sense, it would be interesting to be able to encourage action research by the tutor teams themselves, to build more specific knowledge of tutoring action from the perspective of those who guide these processes.

IX. Conclusion

By observing the contribution of peer-student tutoring to the tutors themselves, this research already contributes to valuing the formative trajectories of the students, and, as we have seen, the space for interaction that occurs in peer tutoring contributes to the idea of comprehensive training of ‘learning to be’ as an articulating axis of comprehensive training. This highlights not only the need to articulate accompaniment strategies from a much more comprehensive perspective, but also that peer tutoring spaces deserve to be developed because they have a social and political purpose by themselves, and because in one way or another, they contribute to improving equity in higher education, addressing the inequality gaps present in the Chilean education system.

By shifting the focus of observation from the impact on the competences of those being tutored to the impact on the competences developed by the tutors themselves, the research contributed to reflecting on top-down strategies in higher education (which could reproduce the inequalities of the education system), transforming the focus from useful learning to a more horizontal construction (bottom-up) where the concern for comprehensive training can be deployed in competency-based learning codes. This has not been sufficiently visible but could contribute to a much more participatory institutional vision of the university, with different levels of support for students who are not only being trained for the world of work, but also (especially from the hallmark of the Alberto Hurtado University) are being trained as socially responsible people.

In this sense, the decentralised work on educational achievements carried out by tutors contributes to the construction of disinterested knowledge that also contributes to the motivation of the students being tutored. The tutors - who have the possibility of putting their own professional learning into practice in the peer tutoring spaces - recognise this privilege from a sense of identity and responsibility, which orients the tutors to carry out quality-oriented work that compels them to have a greater understanding of their peers from a perspective of student welfare that exceeds the purposes of the peer tutoring programmes.

In this scenario, the tutors of peer tutoring programmes are not only aware of this important contribution to comprehensive training and equity in education, but also, from the discomfort of being in the interstices of university training (neither dependent nor independent of Higher Education institutions) they have legitimised themselves as a key participant in the accompaniment of their peers, contributing - in the development of their role - other ways of inhabiting the university, more comprehensive and collaborative.

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